Dharma

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION


1. WHAT IS DHARMA

2. KINDS OF DHARMA

3. BENEFITS OF THE PRACTICE OF DHARMA

4. FUNDAMENTALS OF DHARMA

5. MEANING AND ORIGINS OF THE WORD DHARMA

6. DHARMA IN HINDUISM

6.1 ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT IN HINDUISM
6.2 PROTO-DHARMARTA IN THE VEDAS
6.3 DEVELOPING CONCEPTIONS

7. DHARMA IN BUDDHISM

7.1 THE TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA
7.2 DHARMAS IN BUDDHIST PHENOMENOLOGY
7.3 DHARMA AS RIGHTEOUSNESS


CONCLUSION

BILIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The word Dharma - This Sanskrit word is derived from the root - Dhm Dhame. It means to hold or accommodate or possess or follow which is essential to survive in the world for an individual and society together with due harmony and consistency with the whole universe without fail. It is something suitable, relevant and worthy to act upon mentally and physically for the pleasure of all. Opposite of it is Adharma, which is not beneficial to any one in any respect and hampers the peace, prosperity and progress of the world.

The word Dharma is used in various contexts in the Vedas, the Upanishads etc. such as virtue, merit, attributes, nature, and quality. Duty, law, right, righteousness, property etc. All noble qualities, thoughts and actions are included in Dharma according to Manu, Patanjali and others. The truth, non-violence, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession are the main headings or principles of Dharma. Adharma is just contradictory to Dharma.

1. WHAT IS DHARMA

What is Dharma? Dharma is so called, because it holds: Dharma alone holds the people, etc. The word Dharma is derived from the root DHR- to hold- and its etymological meaning is ‘that which holds’ this world, or the people of the world, or the whole creation from the microcosm to the macrocosm. It is the eternal Divine Law of the Lord. The entire creation is held together and sustained by the All-powerful Law of God. Practice of Dharma, therefore, means recognition of this Law and abidance by it[1].

To whole saying is that which brings well-being to man is Dharma. Dharma supports this world. The people are upheld by Dharma. That which accrues preservation of beings is Dharma. Dharma leads to eternal happiness and immortality[2]. That which is Dharma is verily the Truth. Therefore, whosoever speaks the truth is said to speak Dharma, and whosoever speaks Dharma is said to speak the truth. One and the same thing becomes both. Dharma includes all external deeds, as well as thoughts and other mental practices, which tend to elevate the character of a man. Dharma comes from the Divine and leads you to the Divine[3].

Dharma means Achara or the regulation of daily life. Achara is the supreme Dharma. It is the basis of Tapas or austerity. It leads to wealth, beauty, longevity and continuity of lineage. Evil conduct and immorality will lead to ill-fame, sorrow, disease and premature death. Dharma has its root in morality the controller of Dharma is God Himself[4].

2. KINDS OF DHARMA

Dharma can be classified under two heads:
1) Samanya or the general, universal Dharma.
2) Visesha or the specific, personal Dharma.
1.Contentment, 2.forgiveness, 3.self-restraint, 4.non-stealing, 5.purity, 6.control of senses, 7.discrimination between right and wrong, as also between the real and the unreal, 8. Spiritual knowledge, 9.truthfulness and 10.absence of anger come under the general or universal Dharma. To say the rules of the castes and orders of life are specific Dharmas. These are the tenfold characteristics of Dharma according to Manu[5].

Dharma assumes various kinds: Sanatana Dharma (Eternal Law), Samanya Dharma (general duty), Visesha Dharma (special duty), Varnashrama Dharma (duties of caste and Order), Svadharma (one’s own duty), Yuga Dharma (duty of the age or period in history), Kula Dharma ((duty of family), Manava Dharma (duty of man), Purusha Dharma (duty of male), Stri Dharma (duty of female), Raja Dharma (duty of king), Praja Dharma (duty of subjects), Pravritti Dharma (duty in worldly life) and Nivritti Dharma (duty in spiritual life)[6].

3. BENEFITS OF THE PRACTICE OF DHARMA

Of the four grand objects of human aspirations (Purusharthas), viz., Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Dharma alone is the gateway to Moksha, to immortality, infinite bliss, supreme peace and highest knowledge. Dharma alone is the primary Purushartha. Dharma is the first and foremost Purushartha. Through the practice of Dharma alone can you ever hope to achieve the crowning glory of all human endeavors, viz., Moksha (liberation) which is the best and the highest of all desirable things[7].

Practice of Dharma leads to the perfect realization of essential unity or the final end, the highest good, namely, Moksha (liberation). The practitioner experiences peace, joy, strength and tranquility within himself. His life becomes thoroughly disciplined. His powers and capacities are exceedingly intensified. He realizes that there is one underlying homogeneous essence, a living truth, behind these names and forms. He is transmuted into divinity. His whole nature gets transformed. He becomes one with the Eternal. He beholds Brahman (the Supreme Reality) above, Brahman below, Brahman to the right, Brahman to the left, Brahman in front, Brahman at the back, Brahman within, Brahman without and Brahman pervading the whole world[8].

4. FUNDAMENTALS OF DHARMA

The Vishnu Samhita enumerates forgiveness, truthfulness, control of the mind, purity, practice of charity, control of the senses, non-violence, service of the Guru, visiting places of pilgrimage, compassion, simplicity, absence of greed, worship of the gods and the Brahmanas, and absence of malice as the ingredients of Samanya Dharma, the general law for all men[9].
The Mahabharata enumerates as the fundamentals of Dharma: The performance of Sraddha or offering oblations to the forefathers, Religious austerity, Truth, Restraint of anger, Satisfaction with one’s wife, purity, Learning, Absence of envy, Knowledge of the Self and, Forbearance[10].

It is said in Padma Purana that Dharma proceeds from continence, truthfulness, austerity, charity, self-control, forbearance, purity, non-violence, serenity and non-thieving and that one should recognize Dharma by these ten factors. According to this Purana, bestowing gifts on deserving persons, fixing one’s thoughts on Lord Krishna, adoration of one’s parents, offering a portion of the daily meal to all creatures and giving a morsel of food to a cow are the characteristics of Dharma[11].

According to Matsya Purana, freedom from malice, absence of covetousness, control of the senses, austerity, celibacy, compassion, truthfulness, forbearance and fortitude constitute the fundamentals of Sanatana Dharma[12].Patanjali Maharshi, the exponent of Raja Yoga philosophy, recommends that all men should practice ten virtues. The first five are: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Brahmacharya (celibacy in thought, word and deed), Asteya (non-stealing) and Aparigraha (non-covetousness). These constitute Yama or self-restraint. The other five virtues are: Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of scriptures or recitation of Mantra) and Isvarpranidhana (consecration of the fruits of all works to the Lord). These constitute Niyama or religious observance[13].

The Gita enumerates the following virtues as Daivi-Sampat or divine qualities: fearlessness, purity of heart, steadfastness in the Yoga of Wisdom, alms-giving, self-restraint, sacrifice, study of the scriptures, austerity, straightforwardness, harmlessness, truth, absence of wrath, renunciation, peacefulness, absence of crookedness, compassion to living beings, non-covetousness, mildness, modesty, absence of fickleness, vigor, forgiveness, purity and absence of envy and pride. All these virtues are manifestations of the four fundamental virtues:
1. Non-violence, 2. Truth, 3.Purity, 4.Self-control[14].

All the above virtues come under the above four cardinal virtues. The virtues that are enumerated under the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism and the virtues prescribed by Lord Jesus in his Sermon on the Mount, also come under the above fundamental virtues. The development of the divine qualities is indispensable for the attainment of Self-realization. Brahman or the Eternal is purity. The Eternal cannot be attained without the attainment of purity. Brahman is Truth. The Eternal cannot be attained without practicing truth. Brahman is fearlessness. The Eternal cannot be attained unless you become absolutely fearless. Attachment to the body causes fear and Dehadhyasa. If only you become fearless, then the identification with the body will vanish[15].

Non-violence
Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important virtue. That is the reason why Patanjali Maharshi has placed it first in Yama. Practice of Ahimsa must be in thought, word and deed. Practice of Ahimsa is not impotence or cowardice or weakness. It is the highest type of heroism. The practice demands immense patience, forbearance and endurance, infinite inner spiritual strength and gigantic will power[16].

Ahimsa is a modification or expression of truth only. Satyam (truth) and Ahimsa always go together. He who is established in Ahimsa can move the whole world. In his presence, all hostilities vanish; lion and cow, cobra and mongoose, live together peacefully. Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism lay great stress on Ahimsa. Lord Jesus also has emphasized much on Ahimsa in his Sermon on the Mount. He says: "If any one beats you on one cheek, show him the other cheek also"[17].

Truth
Brahman (the Supreme Reality) is Sat or Existence-Absolute. Truth must be observed in thought, word and deed. If you are established in truth, all other virtues will cling to you by themselves. Harishchandra sacrificed everything for the sake of truth. He lives still in our hearts. Yudhishthira was also devoted to truth. There is no virtue higher than truth. Practice of truth and Ahimsa constitute the crown and glory of ethical life. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the preceptor says in his convocation address to the students: "Satyam vada"-Speak the truth. The world is rooted in truth. Dharma is rooted in truth. All religions are rooted in truth. Honesty, justice, straightforwardness and sincerity are only modifications or expressions of truth[18].

Purity
Purity comprises both external purity and internal purity. Purity implies both purity of body and purity of mind. Purity of body is only the preliminary to purity of mind. The body is the temple of God. It should be kept clean by daily bathing and clean dress. Cleanliness is a part of godliness. The restriction in diet is best calculated to make the mind pure. Food exercises a direct influence on the mind. Sattvic food makes the mind pure. Purity of food leads to purity of mind. Mind is only made up of the fine essence of food. As the food is, so is the mind[19].

Self-control
Self-control implies both control of the body and control of the mind. Self-control does not mean self-torture. You must lead a well-regulated and disciplined life. You must keep all the senses under your perfect control. The senses are like turbulent and wild horses. This body is like a chariot. Mind is the reins. Intellect is the driver. The Atman is the Lord of the chariot. If the senses are not kept under proper control, they will throw this chariot into a deep abyss. You will come to ruin. He who keeps the reins firm and drives this chariot intelligently by controlling the horses (senses), will reach the destination (Moksha or the abode of Eternal Bliss) safely[20].

Self-control implies self-sacrifice, annihilation of egoism, patience, endurance, forbearance and humility. Overcome Raga or attachment by Vairagya or dispassion. Dispassion will dawn in your mind if you look into the defects of sensual life such as birth, death, disease, old age, pain, sorrow, etc. (Mithya-Drishti and Dosha-Drishti). Overcome anger and hatred by Kshama or forgiveness, love and selfless service. Overcome evil by good. Return good for evil. Overcome lust by the practice of Brahmacharya and regular Japa (repetition of Mantra or Lord’s name) and meditation. Conquer greed by charity, generosity and disinterested actions. Conquer pride by humility and delusion by discrimination and enquiry. Overcome jealousy by magnanimity, Atma-Bhava and nobility. Conquer egoism by self-sacrifice, self-surrender, self-abnegation and meditation on the non-dual, eternal, self-luminous Brahman, thy innermost Self, the Inner Ruler, and the immortal[21].

5. MEANINGS AND ORIGINS OF THE WORD DHARMA

The word Dharma or dhamma (Pali) is used in most or all philosophies and religions of Indian origin, the dharmic faiths, namely Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma), Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Dharma also is practiced in the Surat Shabda Yoga traditions. In its oldest form, dharman, it first appears in the Vedas[22].

It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for Dharma (since life fails to convey its connoted complexity). The word has a long and varied history and complex set of meanings and interpretations. Certain Westerners and Orientalists have proposed a number of possible translations, from "justice" to "religion", however these definitions have evolved with their associated usage in Western culture[23].

"Dharma" derives from the verbal root, “dhri”, which simply means "manner of being." The term must therefore be understood in its original (i.e. metaphysical) context, that of a conformity to a divine or creative principle at work in an individual and in nature. It represents the individual's internal law, to which obedience must be given if that individual life is to live in accordance with a Divine Will. This is what Hindus consider the sole or primary purpose of life. It explains how justice finds its place among the many modern definitions of the word dharma[24].

Dharma is cognate with the Latin firmus, the origin of the word firm. Meanings related to law, morality, scripture, and teachings were probably acquired through analogy, by being regarded as firm and called as such. For the phenomenological or psychological meaning, see below. To say, Yama, the lord of death, is also known as Dharma, since he works within the laws of karma and morality, regulated by divine principles. More familiar is the embodiment of Dharma in Lord Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. The eldest Pandava, Yudhishthira was referred to as DharmaRaj owing to his steadfastness to Truth & Dharma[25].

The teachings, doctrines, philosophies and practices associated with furthering Dharma are also referred to as such. Sometimes, specific qualifiers are used - viz. Bauddha-Dharma and Jain-Dharma to distinguish them from Sanatana-Dharma[26].

For the many Buddhists, the Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence and/or experience. In scripture translations dharma is often best left untranslated, as it has acquired a lively life of its own in English that is more expressive than any simplistic translation. Common translations and glosses include "right way of living," Divine Law, Path of Righteousness, order, faith, "natural harmony," rule, fundamental, and duty. Dharma may be used to refer to rules of the operation of the mind or universe in a metaphysical system, or to rules of comportment in an ethical system[27].

6. DHARMA IN HINDUISM

Within Indian philosophy "dharma" also means "property" and "dharmin" means "property-bearer". In a Sanskrit sentence like "zabdo 'nityaH" (Sanskrit transliterated according to the Kyoto-Harvard convention), "sound is impermanent", "sound" is the bearer of the property "impermanence". Likewise, in the sentence "iha ghataH", "here, there is a pot", "here" is the bearer of the property "pot-existence" - this just goes to show that the categories property and property-bearer are closer to those of a logical predicate and its subject-term, and not to a grammatical predicate and subject[28].

6.1 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT IN HINDUISM

A common manner of describing Hinduism among its adherents is as a way of life, as "Dharma." It defies dogma and thus seeks to instead align the human body, mind, and soul in harmony with nature. Our very limitation is guided under a universal understanding, that of Dharma. The Atharva Veda, the last of the four books of the Vedas, utilizes symbolism to describe dharma's role. Thus we are bound by the laws of time, space and causation according to finite reality, which itself is a limitation imposed by the self-projection of the infinite Brahman as the cosmos[29]. Dharma is the foundation of this causal existence, the one step below the infinite. Indeed, dharma is the projection of divine order from Brahman, and as such:
"Prithivim Dharmana Dhritam"
"This world is upheld by Dharma" [30].

6.2 PROTO-DHARMARTA IN THE VEDAS

To assess a concept whose explication is bewildering in range, it is useful to trace its nascence and subsequent development in Vedic culture. In the Vedas, which span back to 2000 BCE (and much further in oral tradition), the first concept that is strikingly dharmic is that of rta. To say, Rta literally means the "course of things." At first, the early Hindus (or followers of the "Sanatan Dharma") were notably confused as to the inscrutable order of nature, how the heavenly bodies, the rushing winds and flowing waters, the consistent cycling of the seasons, were regulated. Thenceforth sprang rta, whose all-purpose role it was to signify this order, the path that was always followed. Through all the metamorphoses and permutations of nature, of life in general, there was one unchangeable fact: rta[31].

Soon it transcended its passive role as a mere signifier and took on a greater one, that of an active imposition of order. Not only the natural principles, but also the gods and goddesses themselves, were obliged to abide by rta. Rta became the father, the law of justice and righteousness, unyielding but eminently fair. It grew, as Radhakrishnan states, from "physical" to "divine" in it’s purvey[32].

The world's seeming mess of altercating fortune, the caprice of the divinities, was now intelligible. Indeed, there was a single, unchanging harmony working 'behind the scenes.' A right path existed, ready to be taken by the righteous ones. Rta signifies the way life ought to be, shifting from physical to divine, from natural to moral order. Rta was morality, the equitable law of the universe. The conception of this all-transcending, supramental force that is, practically, the same concept as later understandings of dharma, is captured in this early Vedic prayer, preempting the liturgical strains of classical Hindu mantras involving dharma:
For Example we see the prayer,
"O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils”. From (Rig Veda Book X, Chapter CXXXIII, Verse 6)
Thus we see the logical progression of an early 'course of things' into an all-encompassing moral order, a path and way of righteousness, an all-encompassing harmony of the universe, in the Vedic idea of Rta[33].

6.3 DEVELOPING CONCEPTIONS

An earlier and insightful demonstration of the continuity of thought from rta to dharma is a brief but "pregnant definition" ((3) of dharma given in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, a pre-Buddhist work dating back to between 1000 to 700 BCE. Founded upon the Hindu ideas of, as R. H. Hume's "intelligent monism," with Brahman the monad, the Upanishads saw dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the universe. It is sat, truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma has imbibed the highest principles of Truth, and as such is the central guiding principle in the Hindu conception of existence. Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality[34].

7. IN BUDDHISM

Dharma" means "protection". By practicing Buddha's teachings we protect ourself from suffering and problems. All the problems we experience during daily life originate in ignorance, and the method for eliminating ignorance is to practice Dharma. Practicing Dharma is the supreme method for improving the quality of our human life. The quality of life depends not upon external development or material progress, but upon the inner development of peace and happiness[35].

For example, in the past many Buddhists lived in poor and underdeveloped countries, but they were able to find pure, lasting happiness by practicing what Buddha had taught. If we integrate Buddha's teachings into our daily life, we will be able to solve all our inner problems and attain a truly peaceful mind. Without inner peace, outer peace is impossible[36]. If we first establish peace within our minds by training in spiritual paths, outer peace will come naturally; but if we do not, world peace will never be achieved, no matter how many people campaign for it. An extensive presentation of Dharma can be found in Joyful Path of Good Fortune[37].


7.1 THE TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA

For practicing Buddhists, references to "dharma" or dhamma in the singular, particularly as "the" Dharma, is used to mean the teachings of the Buddha, and is sometimes referred to as the Buddha-Dharma. Dharma is the universal law of nature and to call it Buddha-Dhamma suggests that other kinds of Dharma may exist. But this is not so, there is only one Dharma. The term Buddha-Dharma merely refers to the fact that the Buddha, not created by him, discovered it[38].
The status of the Dharma is regarded variably by different traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate and transcendent truth, which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Christian logos. Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the Dharma more as a useful set of ideas and suggestions for how to live one's life, not requiring any special transmundane status. "Dharma" usually refers inclusively not just to the sayings of the Buddha but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and expand upon the Buddha's teachings[39]. The Dharma is also one of the Three Jewels, and Buddhists are said to seek refuge in it as in the Buddha and the Sangha[40].

7.2 DHARMAS IN BUDDHIST PHENOMENOLOGY

Other uses include, dharma, normally spelled with a small “d” (to differentiate), and refer to "phenomenon" or "constituent factor" of human experience. This was gradually expanded into a classification of constituents of the entire material and mental world. Rejecting the substantial existence of permanent entities, which are qualified by possibly changing qualities, Buddhist Abhidharma philosophy, which enumerated seventy-five dharmas, came to propound that these "constituent factors" are the only type of entity that truly exists[41]. This notion is of particular importance for the analysis of human experience: Rather than assuming that mental states inhere in a cognizing subject, or a soul-substance, Buddhist philosophers largely propose that mental states alone exist as "momentary elements of consciousness", and that a subjective perceiver is assumed[42].

One of the central tenets of Buddhism, is the denial of a separate permanent "I", and is outlined in the Three Signs of Being / Three Seals of Existence. The three signs: 1. Dukkha - Suffering (Pali: Dukkha), 2. Anitya - Change/Impermanence (Pali: Anicca), 3. Anatman - No-I (Pali: Annatta). At the heart of Buddhism, is the denial of an "I" (and hence the delusion) as a separate self-existing entity. Later, Buddhist philosophers like Nagarjuna would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own[43].

7.3 DHARMA AS RIGHTEOUSNESS

According to S. N. Goenka, teacher of Vipassana Meditation, the original meaning of dhamma is “dhareti ti dhamma’, or “that which is contained”. Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including “phenomenon”, and "nature" or "characteristic". Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta, which means heart/mind[44]. The pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experienced through the mind), in major sutras such as the Mahasatipatthana sutra. Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the words of one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which was re-discovered by this man and shared with the world. A person, who lives their life with an understanding of this natural law, is a “dhammic” person, which is often translated as “righteous”[45].

CONCLUSION

Therefore the rule is to follow the Dharma with zeal and enthusiasm and discharge your duties faithfully. The issue is to develop all the virtues, which constitute Dharma and never to deviate an inch from the path of righteousness. One has Stick to Dharma with all your heart, with your entire mind and with all your soul and we can see even the Bible records the same i.e. to love the Lord with all your heart, mind and soul. The necessary to performance one’s duties brings happiness, quick evolution and freedom and this will help us ultimately to soon attain immortality, eternal bliss, supreme peace, perennial joy, absolute freedom and perfection. Therefore one should give ultimate glory to Dharma, which is the supreme light that leads you to the kingdom of eternal bliss and everlasting peace.















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[2] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 58.
[3] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 233.
[4] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 67.
[5] http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/dharma_and_religion.htm, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[6] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 234.

[7] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT. LTD, 1991), 186.
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[11] http://www.hinduism.co.za/dharma.htm#Vedas, viewed on 20/10/2005.
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[17] http://www.hinduism.co.za/dharma.htm#Vedas, viewed on 20/10/2005.
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[19] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT. LTD, 1991), 187.
[20] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 246.

[21] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 247.
[22] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 78.
[23] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 165.
[24] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 78.
[25] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 44.
[26] P T. Raju, Introduction to Comparative Philosophy, (Delhi: Mothilal Benarsidass Publishers, 1992), 144.
[27] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 166.
[28] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 79.
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[30] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 47.
[31] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 83.
[32] S. Radhakrishnan, "Indian Philosophy Vol.1”, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 84.
[33] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 168.
[34] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 49.
[35] M. Hiriyana, The Essential of Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: George Allen $ Unwin Private Limited, 1973), 102.
[36] Etienne Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism (Louvain: Institut Orientaliste, 1988), 201.
[37] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 96.
[38] S. Radhakrishnan, "Indian Philosophy Vol.1”, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 86.
[39] Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, A Historical Sketch, vol. 3, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1921), 231.
[40] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 169.
[41] P T. Raju, Introduction to Comparative Philosophy, (Delhi: Mothilal Benarsidass Publishers, 1992),142.
[42] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 44.
[43] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 89.
[44] Akira Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism, from Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990), 60.
[45] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 44.